Stalls and Spins

[xgary]

ADVISORY CIRCULAR

AC No: 61-67B

Date: 5/17/91

Initiated
by: AFS-840

Change:

Subject: STALL AND SPIN AWARENESS TRAINING

1. PURPOSE. This advisory circular (AC) explains the stall and
spin awareness training required under Part 61 of the Federal
Aviation Regulations (FAR) and offers guidance to flight
instructors who provide that training. In addition, this AC
informs pilots of the airworthiness standards for the type
certification of small airplanes prescribed in FAR Section 23.221
concerning spin maneuvers and it emphasizes the importance of
observing restrictions that prohibit the intentional spinning of
certain airplanes.

2. CANCELLATION. AC 61-67A, dated October 8, 1982, and AC 61-
92 dated January 25, 1980, are canceled.

3. RELATED READING MATERIAL.

a. Report No. FAA-RD-77-26, General Aviation Pilot Stall
Awareness Training Study. This document may be purchased from
the National Technical Information Service (NTIS), U.S.
Department of Commerce, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield,
Virginia 22161. Telephone orders: (703) 487-4650. NTIS
identification number ADA041310.

b. The following documents may be purchased from the
Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. 20402:

(1) AC 61-21, Flight Training Handbook, current edition.

(2) AC 91-23, Pilot's Weight and Balance Handbook,
current edition.

(3) FAA-S-8081-1, Private Pilot - Practical Test
Standards, current edition.

(4) FAA-S-8081-2, Commercial Pilot - Practical Test
Standards, current edition.

(5) FAA-S-8081-6, Flight Instructor - Airplane Practical
Test Standards, current edition.

4. BACKGROUND. In January 1980, the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) issued AC 61-92, "Use of Distractions During
Pilot Certification Flight Tests," announcing its policy of
incorporating the use of certain distractions during the
performance of flight test maneuvers.

This policy came about as a result of Report No. FAA-RD-77-26
which revealed that stall/spin related accidents accounted for
approximately one-quarter of all fatal general aviation
accidents. National Transportation Safety Board statistics
indicate that most stall/spin accidents result when a pilot is
distracted momentarily from the primary task of flying the
aircraft.

5. CHANGES. Changes to FAR Part 61, completed in 1991, included
increased stall and spin awareness training for applicants for
recreational, private, and commercial pilot certificates. The
training is intended to emphasize recognition of situations that
could lead to an inadvertent stall and/or spin by using realistic
distractions such as those suggested in Report No. FAA-RD-77-26
and incorporated into the performance of flight test maneuvers.
Although the training is intended to emphasize stall spin
awareness and recovery techniques for all pilots, only flight
instructor-airplane and flight instructor-glider candidates are
required to demonstrate instructional proficiency in spin entry,
spins, and spin recovery techniques as a requirement for
certification. Where applicable, AC 61-67B supersedes AC 61-
21A.

6. COMMENTS INVITED. Comments regarding this publication should
be directed to:

Federal Aviation Administration
Field Programs Division, AFS-500
Advisory Circular Staff
P.O. Box 20034, Gateway Building
Dulles International Airport
Washington, DC 20041-2034

Every comment will not necessarily generate a direct
acknowledgement to the commenter. Comments received will be
considered in the development of upcoming revisions to AC's or
other related technical material.



/s/ William C. Withycombe
Acting Director, Flight Standards Service


CONTENTS

Page No.

CHAPTER 1. GROUND TRAINING - STALL AND SPIN AWARENESS .... 1

1. DEFINITIONS .......................................... 1
2. DISTRACTIONS ......................................... 3
3. STALL RECOGNITION .................................... 3
4. TYPES OF STALLS ...................................... 4
5. STALL RECOVERY ....................................... 4
6. SECONDARY STALLS ..................................... 4
7. SPINS ................................................ 4
8. WEIGHT AND BALANCE ................................... 5
9. PRIMARY CAUSE ........................................ 5
10. TYPES OF SPINS ....................................... 5
11. SPIN RECOVERY ........................................ 5

CHAPTER 2. FLIGHT TRAINING - STALLS ...................... 7

12. STALL TRAINING ....................................... 7

CHAPTER 3. FLIGHT TRAINING - SPINS ....................... 11

13. SPIN TRAINING ........................................ 11

CHAPTER 14. AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS ...................... 13

14. OPERATING LIMITATIONS ................................ 13
15. PLACARDS ............................................. 14
16. PILOT AWARENESS ...................................... 14


CHAPTER 1. GROUND TRAINING - STALL AND SPIN AWARENESS

1. DEFINITIONS. A stall is a loss of lift and increase in drag
that occurs when an aircraft is flown at an angle of attack
greater than the angle for maximum lift. If recovery from a
stall is not effected in a timely and appropriate manner by
reducing the angle of attack, a secondary stall and/or spin may
result. All spins are preceded by a stall on at least part of
the wing. The angle of the relative wind is determined primarily
by the aircraft's airspeed. Other factors are considered, such
as aircraft weight, center of gravity, configuration, and the
amount of acceleration used in a turn. The speed at which the
critical angle of the relative wind is exceeded is the stall
speed. Stall speeds are listed in the Airplane Flight Manual
(AFM) or the Pilot Operating handbook (POH) and pertain to
certain conditions or aircraft configurations, e.g., landing
configuration. Other specific operational speeds are calculated
based upon the aircraft's stall speed in the landing
configuration. Airspeed values specified in the AFM or POH may
vary under different circumstances. Factors such as weight,
center of gravity, altitude, temperature, turbulence, and the
presence of snow, ice, or frost on the wings will affect an
aircraft's stall speed. To thoroughly understand the stall/spin
phenomenon, some basic factors affecting aircraft aerodynamics
and flight should be reviewed with particular emphasis on their
relation to stall speeds. (This advisory circular is principally
concerned with and discusses airplanes. However, much of the
information also is applicable to gliders.) The following terms
are defined as they relate to stalls/spins.

a. Angle of Attack. Angle of attack is the angle at which
the wing meets the relative wind. The angle of attack must be
small enough to allow attached airflow over and under the airfoil
to produce lift. A change in angle of attack will affect the
amount of lift that is produced. An excessive angle of attack
will eventually disrupt the flow of air over the airfoil. If the
angle of attack is not reduced, a section of the airfoil will
reach its critical angle of attack, lose lift, and stall.
Exceeding the critical angle of attack for a particular airfoil
section will always result in a stall.

b. Airspeed. Airspeed is controlled primarily by the
elevator or longitudinal control position for a given
configuration and power. If an airplane's speed is too slow, the
angle of attack required for level flight will be so large that
the air can no longer follow the upper curvature of the wing.
The result is a separation of airflow from the wing, loss of
lift, a large increase in drag, and eventually a stall if the
angle of attack is not reduced. The stall is the result of
excessive angle of attack - not airspeed. A stall can occur at
any airspeed, in any attitude, and at any power setting.

c. Configuration. Flaps, landing gear, and other
configuring devices can affect an airplane's stall speed.
Extension of flaps and/or landing gear in flight will usually
increase drag. Flap extension will generally increase the
lifting ability of the wings, thus reducing the airplane's stall
speed. The effect of flaps on an airplane's stall speed can be
seen by markings on the airplane's airspeed indicator, where the
lower airspeed limit of the white arc (power-off stall speed with
gear and flaps in the landing configuration) is less than the
lower airspeed limit of the green arc (power-off stall speed in
the clean configuration).

d. V sub so. V sub so means the stall speed or the minimum
steady flight speed in the landing configuration.

e. V sub s1. V sub s1 means the stall speed or the minimum
steady flight speed obtained in a specific configuration.

f. V sub A. V sub A is the design maneuvering speed which
is the speed at which an airplane can be stalled without
exceeding its structural limits.

g. Load Factor. Load factor is the ratio of the lifting
force produced by the wings to the actual weight of the airplane
and its contents. Load factors are usually expressed in terms of
"G." The aircraft's stall speed increases in proportion to the
square root of the load factor. For example, an airplane that
has a normal unaccelerated stall speed of 45 knots can be stalled
at 90 knots when subjected to a load factor of 4 G's. The
possibility of inadvertently stalling the airplane by increasing
the load factor (by putting the airplane in a steep turn or
spiral, for example) is therefore much greater than in normal
cruise flight. A stall entered from straight and level flight or
from an unaccelerated straight climb will not produce additional
load factors. In a constant rate turn, increased load factors
will cause an airplane's stall speed to increase as the angle of
bank increases. Excessively steep banks should be avoided
because the airplane will stall at a much higher speed or, if the
aircraft exceeds maneuvering speed, structural damage to the
aircraft may result before it stalls. If the nose falls during a
steep turn, the pilot might attempt to raise it to the level
flight attitude without shallowing the bank. This situation
tightens the turn and can lead to a diving spiral. A feeling of
weightlessness will result if a stall recovery is performed by
abruptly pushing the elevator control forward, which will reduce
the up load on the wings. Recoveries from stalls and spins
involve a tradeoff between loss of altitude (and an increase in
airspeed) and an increase in load factor in the pullup. However,
recovery from the dive following spin recovery generally causes
higher airspeeds and consequently higher load factors than stall
recoveries due to the much lower position of the nose.
Significant load factor increases are sometimes induced during
pullup after recovery from a stall or spin. It should be noted
that structural damage can result from the high load factors
imposed by intentional stalls practiced above the airplane's
design maneuvering speed.

h. Center of Gravity (CG). The CG location has an indirect
effect on the effective lift and angle of attack of the wing, the
amount and direction of force on the tail, and the degree of
stabilizer deflection needed to supply the proper tail force for
equilibrium. The CG position, therefore, has a significant
effect on stability and stall/spin recovery. As the CG is moved
aft, the amount of elevator deflection will be reduced. An
increased angle of attack will be achieved with less elevator
control force. This could make the entry into inadvertent stalls
easier, and during the subsequent recovery, it would be easier to
generate higher load factors, due to the reduced forces. In an
airplane with an extremely aft CG, very light back elevator
control forces may lead to inadvertent stall entries and if a
spin is entered, the balance of forces on the airplane may result
in a flat spin. Recovery from a flat spin is often impossible.
A forward CG location will often cause the stalling angle of
attack to be reached at a higher airspeed. Increased back
elevator control force is generally required with a forward CG
location.

i. Weight. Although the distribution of weight has the most
direct effect on stability, increased gross weight can also have
an effect on an aircraft's flight characteristics, regardless of
the CG position. As the weight of the airplane is increased, the
stall speed increases. The increased weight requires a higher
angle of attack to produce additional lift to support the weight.

j. Altitude and Temperature. Altitude has little or no
effect on an airplane's indicated stall speed. Thinner air at
higher altitudes will result in decreased aircraft performance
and a higher true airspeed for a given indicated airspeed.
Higher than standard temperatures will also contribute to
increased true airspeed. However, the higher true airspeed has
no effect on indicated approach or stall speeds. The
manufacturer's recommended indicated airspeeds should therefore
be maintained during the landing approach, regardless of the
elevation or the density at the airport of landing.

k. Snow, Ice or Frost on the Wings. Even a small
accumulation of snow, ice or frost on an aircraft's surface can
cause an increase in that aircraft's stall speed. Such
accumulation changes the shape of the wing, disrupting the smooth
flow of air over the surface and, consequently, increasing drag
and decreasing lift. Flight should not be attempted when snow,
ice, or frost has accumulated on the aircraft surfaces.

l. Turbulence. Turbulence can cause an aircraft to stall at
a significantly higher airspeed than in stable conditions. A
vertical gust or windshear can cause a sudden change in the
relative wind, and result in an abrupt increase in angle of
attack. Although a gust may not be maintained long enough for a
stall to develop, the aircraft may stall while the pilot is
attempting to control the flightpath, particularly during an
approach in gusty conditions. When flying in moderate to severe
turbulence or strong crosswinds, a higher than normal approach
speed should be maintained. In cruise flight in moderate or
severe turbulence, an airspeed well above the indicated stall
speed and below maneuvering speed should be used.

2. DISTRACTIONS. Improper airspeed management resulting in
stalls are most likely to occur when the pilot is distracted by
one or more other tasks, such as locating a checklist or
attempting a restart after an engine failure; flying a traffic
pattern on a windy day; reading a chart or making fuel and/or
distance calculations; or attempting to retrieve items from the
floor, back seat, or glove compartment. Pilots at all skill
levels should be aware of the increased risk of entering into an
inadvertent stall or spin while performing tasks that are
secondary to controlling the aircraft.

3. STALL RECOGNITION. There are several ways to recognize that
a stall is impending before it actually occurs. When one or more
of these indicators is noted, initiation of a recovery should be
instinctive (unless a full stall is being practiced intentionally
from an altitude that allows recovery above 1,500 feet above
ground level (AGL) for single-engine airplanes and 3,000 feet AGL
for multiengine airplanes). One indication of a stall is a mushy
feeling in the controls and less control effect as the aircraft's
speed is reduced. This reduction in control effectiveness is
attributed in part to reduced airflow over the flight control
surfaces. In fixed-pitch propeller airplanes, a loss of
revolutions per minute (RPM) may be evident when approaching a
stall in power-on conditions. For both airplanes and gliders, a
reduction in the sound of air flowing along the fuselage is
usually evident. Just before the stall occurs, buffeting,
uncontrollable pitching, or vibrations may begin. Many aircraft
are equipped with stall warning devices that will alert the pilot
when the airflow over the wing(s) approaches a point that will
not allow lift to be sustained. Finally, kinesthesia (the
sensing of changes in direction or speed of motion), when
properly learned and developed, will warn the pilot of a decrease
in speed or the beginning of a "mushing" of the aircraft. These
preliminary indications serve as a warning to the pilot to
increase airspeed by adding power, and/or lowering the nose,
and/or decreasing the angle of bank.

4. TYPES OF STALLS. Stalls can be practiced both with and
without power. Stalls should be practiced to familiarize the
student with the aircraft's particular stall characteristics
without putting the aircraft into a potentially dangerous
condition. In multiengine airplanes, single-engine stalls must
be avoided. A description of some different types of stalls
follows:

a. Power-off stalls (also known as approach-to-landing
stalls) are practiced to simulate normal approach-to-landing
conditions and configuration. Many stall/spin accidents have
occurred in these power-off situations, such as crossed control
turns from base leg to final approach (resulting in a skidding or
slipping turn); attempting to recover from a high sink rate on
final approach by using only an increased pitch attitude; and
improper airspeed control on final approach or in other segments
of the traffic pattern.

b. Power-on stalls (also known as departure stalls) are
practiced to simulate takeoff and climb-out conditions and
configuration. Many stall/spin accidents have occurred during
these phases of flight, particularly during go-arounds. A causal
factor in such accidents has been the pilot's failure to maintain
positive control due to a nose-high trim setting or premature
flap retraction. Failure to maintain positive control during
short field takeoffs has also been an accident causal factor.

c. Accelerated stalls can occur at higher-than-normal
airspeeds due to abrupt and/or excessive control applications.
These stalls may occur in steep turns, pullups, or other abrupt
changes in flightpath. Accelerated stalls usually are more
severe than unaccelerated stalls and are often expected because
they occur at higher-than-normal airspeeds.

5. STALL RECOVERY. The key factor in recovery from a stall is
regaining positive control of the aircraft by reducing the angle
of attack. At the first indication of a stall, the aircraft
angle of attack must be decreased to allow the wings to regain
lift. Every aircraft in upright flight may require a different
amount of forward pressure to regain lift. It should be noted
that too much forward pressure can hinder recovery by imposing a
negative load on the wing. The next step in recovering from a
stall is to smoothly apply maximum allowable power (if
applicable) to increase the airspeed and to minimize the loss of
altitude. Certain high performance airplanes may require only an
increase in thrust and relaxation of the back pressure on the
yoke to effect recovery. As airspeed increases and the recovery
is completed, power should be adjusted to return the airplane to
the desired flight condition. Straight and level flight should
be established with full coordinated use of the controls. The
airspeed indicator or tachometer, if installed, should never be
allowed to reach their high-speed red lines at anytime during a
practice stall.

6. SECONDARY STALLS. If recovery from a stall is not made
properly, a secondary stall or a spin may result. A secondary
stall is caused by attempting to hasten the completion of a stall
recovery before the aircraft has regained sufficient flying
speed. When this stall occurs, the back elevator pressure should
again be released just as in a normal stall recovery. When
sufficient airspeed has been regained, the aircraft can then be
returned to straight-and-level flight.

7. SPINS. A spin in a small airplane or glider is a controlled
or uncontrolled maneuver in which the glider or airplane descends
in a helical path while flying at an angle of attack greater than
the angle of maximum lift. Spins result from aggravated stalls
in either a slip or a skid. If a stall does not occur, a spin
cannot occur. In a stall, one wing will often drop before the
other and the nose will yaw in the direction of the low wing.

8. WEIGHT AND BALANCE. Minor weight or balance changes can
affect an aircraft's spin characteristics. For example, the
addition of a suitcase in the aft baggage compartment will affect
the weight and balance of the aircraft. An aircraft that may be
difficult to spin intentionally in the utility category
(restricted aft CG and reduced weight) could have less resistance
to spin entry in the normal category (less restricted aft CG and
increased weight) due to its ability to generate a higher angle
of attack and increased load factor. Furthermore, an aircraft
that is approved for spins in the utility category, but loaded in
the normal category, may not recover from a spin that is allowed
to progress beyond one turn.

9. PRIMARY CAUSE. The primary cause of an inadvertent spin is
exceeding the critical angle of attack for a given stall speed
while executing a turn with excessive or insufficient rudder,
and, to a lesser extent, aileron. In an uncoordinated maneuver,
the pitot/static instruments, especially the altimeter and
airspeed indicator, are unreliable due to the uneven distribution
of air pressure over the fuselage. The pilot may not be aware
that a critical angle of attack has been exceeded until the stall
warning device activates. If a stall recovery is not promptly
initiated, the airplane is more likely to enter an inadvertent
spin. The spin that occurs from cross controlling an aircraft
usually results in rotation in the direction of the rudder being
applied, regardless of which wing tip is raised. In a skidding
turn, where both aileron and rudder are applied in the same
direction, rotation will be in the direction the controls are
applied. However, in a slipping turn, where opposite aileron is
held against the rudder, the resultant spin will usually occur in
the direction opposite the aileron that is being applied.

10. TYPES OF SPINS.

a. An incipient spin is that portion of a spin from the
time the airplane stalls and rotation starts, until the spin
becomes fully developed. Incipient spins that are not allowed to
develop into a steady spin are commonly used as an introduction
to spin training and recovery techniques.

b. A fully developed spin occurs when the aircraft angular
rotation rates, airspeed, and vertical speed are stabilized from
turn-to-turn in a flightpath that is close to vertical.

c. A flat spin is characterized by a near level pitch and
roll attitude with the spin axis near the CG of the airplane.
Recovery from a flat spin may be extremely difficult and, in some
cases, impossible.

11. SPIN RECOVERY. Before flying any aircraft, in which spins
are to be conducted, the pilot should be familiar with the
operating characteristics and standard operating procedures,
including spin recovery techniques, specified in the approved AFM
or POH. The first step in recovering from an upright spin is to
close the throttle completely to eliminate power and minimize the
loss of altitude. If the particular aircraft spin recovery
techniques are not known, the next step is to neutralize the
ailerons, determine the direction of the turn, and supply full
opposite rudder. When the rotation slows, briskly move the
elevator control forward to approximately the neutral position.
Some aircraft require merely a relaxation of back pressure;
others require full forward elevator control pressure. Forward
movement of the elevator control will decrease the angle of
attack. Once the stall is broken, the spinning will stop.
Neutralize the rudder when the spinning stops to avoid entering a
spin in the opposite direction. When the rudder is neutralized,
gradually apply enough aft elevator pressure to return to level
flight. Too much or abrupt aft elevator pressure and/or
application of rudder and ailerons during the recovery can result
in a secondary stall and possibly another spin. If the spin is
being performed in an airplane, the engine will sometimes stop
developing power due to centrifugal force acting on the fuel in
the airplane's tanks causing fuel interruption. It is,
therefore, recommended to assume that power is not available when
practicing spin recovery. As a rough estimate, an altitude loss
of approximately 500 feet per each 3-second turn can be expected
in most small aircraft in which spins are authorized. Greater
losses can be expected at higher density altitudes.


CHAPTER 2. FLIGHT TRAINING - STALLS

12. STALL TRAINING. Flight instructor-airplane and flight
instructor-glider applicants must be able to give stall training.
The flight instructor should emphasize that techniques and
procedures for each aircraft may differ and that pilots should be
aware of the flight characteristics of each aircraft flown.
Single-engine stalls should not be demonstrated or practiced in
multiengine airplanes. Engine-out minimum control speed
demonstrations in multiengine airplanes should not be attempted
when the density altitude and temperature are such that the
engine-out minimum control speed is close to the stall speed,
since loss of directional or lateral control could result. The
flight training required by FAR Part 61 does not entail the
actual practicing of spins for other than flight instructor-
airplane and flight instructor-glider applicants, but emphasizes
stall and spin avoidance. The most effective training method
contained in Report No. FAA-RD-77-26 is the simulation of
scenarios that can lead to inadvertent stalls by creating
distractions while the student is practicing certain maneuvers.
Stall demonstrations and practice, including maneuvering during
slow flight and other maneuvers with distractions that can lead
to inadvertent stalls, should be conducted at a sufficient
altitude to enable recovery above 1,500 feet AGL in single-
engine airplanes and 3,000 feet AGL in multiengine airplanes.
The following training elements are based on Report No. FAA-RD-
77-26:

a. Stall Avoidance Practice at Slow Airspeeds.

(1) Assign a heading and an altitude. Have the student
reduce power and slow to an airspeed just above the stall speed,
using trim as necessary.

(2) Have the student maintain heading and altitude with
the stall warning device activated.

(3) Demonstrate the effect of elevator trim (use neutral
and full nose-up settings) and rudder trim, if available.

(4) Note the left turning tendency and rudder
effectiveness for lateral/directional control.

(5) Emphasize how right rudder pressure is necessary to
center the ball indicator and maintain heading.

(6) Release the rudder and advise the student to observe
to the left yaw.

(7) Adverse yaw demonstration. While at a low airspeed,
have the student enter left and right turns without using rudder
pedals.

(8) Have the student practice turns, climbs, and
descents at low airspeeds.

(9) Demonstrate the proper flap extension and retraction
procedures while in level flight to avoid a stall at low
airspeeds. Note the change in stall speeds with flaps extended
and retracted.

(10) Realistic distractions at low airspeeds. Give the
student a task to perform while flying at a low airspeed.
Instruct the student to divide his/her attention between the task
and flying the aircraft to maintain control and avoid a stall.
The following distractions can be used:

(i) Drop a pencil. Ask the student to pick it
up. Ask the student to determine a heading to an airport using a
chart.

(ii) Ask the student to reset the clock to
Universal Coordinated Time.

(iii) Ask the student to get something from the
back seat.

(iv) Ask the student to read the outside air
temperature.

(v) Ask the student to call the Flight Service
Station (FSS) for weather information.

(vi) Ask the student to compute true airspeed
with a flight computer.

(vii) Ask the student to identify terrain or
objects on the ground.

(viii) Ask the student to identify a field suitable
for forced landing.

(ix) Have the student climb 200 feet and maintain
altitude, then descend 200 feet and maintain altitude.

(x) Have the student reverse course after a
series of S-turns.

(11) Flight at low airspeeds with the airspeed indicator
covered. Use various flap settings and distractions.

b. Departure Stall.

(1) At a safe altitude, have the student attempt
coordinated power-on (departure) stalls straight ahead and in
turns. Emphasize how these stalls could occur during takeoff.

(2) Ask the student to demonstrate a power-on
(departure) stall and distract him/her just before the stall
occurs. Explain any effects the distraction may have had on the
stall or recovery.

c. Engine Failure in a Climb Followed by a 180-Degree Turn.
This demonstration will show the student how much altitude the
airplane loses following a power failure after takeoff and during
a 180-degree turn back to the runway and why returning to the
airport after losing an engine is not a recommended procedure.
This can be performed using either a medium or steep bank in the
180-degree turn, but emphasis should be given to stall avoidance.

(1) Set up best rate of climb (V sub y).

(2) Reduce power smoothly to idle as the airplane passes
through a cardinal altitude.

(3) Lower the nose to maintain the best glide speed and
make a 180-degree turn at the best glide speed.

(4) Point out the altitude loss and emphasize how
rapidly airspeed decreases following a power failure in a climb
attitude.
d. Cross Controlled Stalls in Gliding Turns. Perform stalls
in gliding turns to simulate turns from base to final. Perform
the stalls from a properly coordinated turn, a slipping turn, and
a skidding turn. Explain the difference between slipping and
skidding turns. Explain the ball indicator position in each turn
and the aircraft behavior in each of the stalls.

e. Power off (Approach-To-Landing) Stalls.

(1) Have the student perform a full-flap, gear extended,
power-off stall with the correct recovery and cleanup procedures.
Note the loss of altitude.

(2) Have the student repeat this procedure and distract
the student during the stall and recovery and note the effect of
the distraction. Show how errors in flap retraction procedure
can cause a secondary stall.

f. Stalls During Go-Arounds.

(1) Have the student perform a full-flap, gear extended,
power-off stall, then recover and attempt to climb with flaps
extended. If a higher than normal climb pitch attitude is held,
a secondary stall will occur. (In some airplanes, a stall will
occur if a normal climb pitch attitude is held.)

(2) Have the student perform a full-flap, gear extended,
power-off stall, then recover and retract the flaps rapidly as a
higher than normal climb pitch attitude is held. A secondary
stall or settling with a loss of altitude may result.

g. Elevator Trim Stall.

(1) Have the student place the airplane in a landing
approach configuration, in a trimmed descent.

(2) After the descent is established, initiate a
go-around by adding full power, holding only light elevator and
right rudder pressure.

(3) Allow the nose to pitch up and torque to swerve the
airplane left. At the first indication of a stall, recover to a
normal climbing pitch attitude.

(4) Emphasize the importance of correct attitude
control, application of control pressures, and proper trim during
go-arounds.

CHAPTER 3. FLIGHT TRAINING - SPINS

13. SPIN TRAINING. Spin training is required for flight
instructor-airplane and flight instructor-glider applicants only.
Upon completion of the training, the applicant's logbook or
training record should be endorsed by the flight instructor who
provided the training. A sample endorsement of spin training for
flight instructor applicants is available in AC 61-65,
Certification: Pilots and Flight Instructors, current edition.

a. Spin training must be accomplished in an aircraft that is
approved for spins. Before practicing intentional spins, the AFM
or POH should be consulted for the proper entry and recovery
techniques.

b. The training should begin by practicing both power-on and
power-off stalls to familiarize the applicant with the aircraft's
stall characteristics. Spin avoidance, incipient spins, and
actual spin entry, spin, and spin recovery techniques should be
practiced from an altitude above 3,500 feet AGL.

c. Spin avoidance training should consist of stalls and
maneuvering during slow flight using realistic distractions such
as those listed in Chapter 2. Performance is considered
unsatisfactory if it becomes necessary for the instructor to take
control of the aircraft to avoid a fully developed spin.

d. Incipient spins should be practiced to train the
instructor applicant to recover from a student's poorly performed
stall or unusual attitude that could lead to a spin.

(1) Configure the aircraft for a power-on or power-off
stall, and continue to apply back elevator pressure. As the
stall occurs, apply right or left rudder and allow the nose to
yaw toward the stalled wing. Release the spin inducing controls
and recover as the spin begins by applying opposite rudder and
forward elevator pressure. The instructor should discuss control
application in the recovery.

e. Spin entry, spin, and spin recovery should be
demonstrated by the instructor and repeated, in both directions,
by the applicant.

(1) Apply the entry procedure for a power-off stall. As
the airplane approaches a stall, smoothly apply full rudder in
the direction of desired spin rotation and continue to apply back
elevator to the limit of travel. The ailerons should be neutral.

(2) Allow the spin to develop, and be fully recovered no
later than one full turn. Observe the airspeed indicator during
the spin and subsequent recovery to ensure that it does not reach
the red line (V sub NE).

(3) Follow the recovery procedures recommended by the
manufacturer in the AFM or POH. In most aircraft, spin recovery
techniques consist of retarding power (if in a powered aircraft),
applying opposite rudder to slow the rotation, neutralizing the
ailerons, applying positive forward-elevator movement to break
the stall, neutralizing the rudder as the spinning stops, and
returning to level flight.


CHAPTER 4. AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS

14. OPERATING LIMITATIONS. Operating limitations are imposed
for the safety of pilots and their passengers. Operations
contrary to these restrictions are a serious compromise of
safety. It is, therefore, most important that all pilots, flight
and ground instructors, and pilot examiners apply the following
information on spinning to pilot training and flight operations.

a. Normal Category. Single-engine normal category airplanes
are placarded against intentional spins. However, to provide a
margin of safety when recovery from a stall is delayed, these
airplanes are tested during certification and must be able to
recover from a one-turn spin or a 3-second spin, whichever takes
longer, in not more than one additional turn with the controls
used in the manner normally used for recovery. In addition:

(1) For both the flaps-retracted and flaps-extended
conditions, the applicable airspeed limit and positive limit
maneuvering load factor may not be exceeded. For the flaps-
extended condition, the flaps may be retracted during recovery;

(2) There may be no excessive back pressure during the
spin recovery; and

(3) It must be impossible to obtain uncontrollable spins
with any use of the controls.
______________________

Note: Since airplanes certificated in the normal category have
not been tested for more than a one-turn or 3-second spin, their
performance characteristics beyond these limits are unknown.
This is the reason they are placarded against intentional spins.

______________________

b. Acrobatic Category. An acrobatic category airplane must
meet the following requirements.

(1) The airplane must recover from any point in a spin,
in not more than one and one-half additional turns after normal
recovery application of the controls. Prior to normal recovery
application of the controls, the spin test must proceed for six
turns or 3 seconds, whichever takes longer, with flaps retracted,
and one turn or 3 seconds, whichever takes longer, with flaps
extended. However, beyond 3 seconds, the spin may be
discontinued when spiral characteristics appear with flaps
retracted.

(2) For both the flaps-retracted and flaps-extended
conditions, the applicable airspeed limit and the positive limit
maneuvering load factor may not be exceeded. For the flaps-
extended condition, the flaps may be retracted during recovery,
if a placard is installed prohibiting intentional spins with
flaps extended.

(3) It must be impossible to obtain uncontrollable spins
with any use of the controls.

______________________

Note: Since airplanes certificated in the acrobatic category
have not been tested for more than six turns or 3 seconds, their
performance characteristics beyond these limits are unknown.

______________________

c. Utility Category. A utility category airplane must meet
the requirements for either the normal or acrobatic category.

15. PLACARDS. Under FAR Section 23.1567, all airplanes type
certificated under FAR Part 23 must have a flight maneuver
placard containing the following information:

a. For normal category airplanes, there must be a placard in
front of and in clear view of the pilot stating: "No acrobatic
maneuvers, including spins, approved."

b. Additionally, for those utility category airplanes, with
a certification basis after March 1978 and that do not meet the
spin requirements for acrobatic category airplanes, there must be
an additional placard in clear view of the pilot stating: "Spins
Prohibited."

c. For acrobatic category airplanes, there must be a placard
in clear view of the pilot listing the approved acrobatic
maneuvers and the recommended entry airspeed for each. If
inverted flight maneuvers are not approved, the placard must
include a notation to this effect.

16. PILOT AWARENESS. The pilot of an airplane placarded against
intentional spins should assume that the airplane may become
uncontrollable in a spin. In addition, stall warning devices
should not be deactivated for pilot certification flight tests in
airplanes for which they are required equipment.

[Chappy]

Has anyone ever successfully spun a Lazair?

Originally, the Lazair's refusal to spin was credited to not having rudder pedals - so it couldn't be cross controlled. But after rudder pedals were fitted, it still wouldn't spin. Ultraflight says it will only enter a spiral, and that's my experience too.

So, has anyone figured out how to actually make a Lazair do a true spin?

Chappy

[Bill]

[flyalaz]

[uscgairdale]